Cross-cultural differences on language learners

Cross-cultural differences on language learners Introduction In this article the authors tried to measure the impact of cross-cultural differences on language learners interpretation of imageable idioms. The definition of imageable idioms: ‘idioms that have associated conventional images (Lakoff 1987:447). The study reported in this article investigated whether these imageable idioms call up the same scene in the language learners mind as in the native speakers mind. Guessing the meaning of the figurative expressions such as Pass the hat around or Hang on someones sleeve appears not to be beyond the capacities of many language learners, even at lower-intermediate levels of proficiency. The authors hypothesize that idioms relating to a metaphoric theme (conceptual metaphors or source domains) that is more salient in the target culture will tend to be less easily ‘guessable to language learners that those relating to a metaphoric theme that is more or equally salient in the L1 culture. In the experiment 78 French-speaking university students were presented with the range of unfamiliar English imageable idioms and asked to ‘guess their meaning. Despite the absence of any contextual clues, about 35% of the participants responses overall were correct. The authors consider these data to offer (tentative) support to the hypothesis. Taking into account the conjectural results of the experiment I think the research should be more elaborated and improved to achieve cogent and convincing outcome of the project. Awareness of idioms extremely facilitates reading both printed media and fiction. Reasonable application of idioms makes speech more vivid, emotional, and significant. Behind these locutions there is a whole world, historical epoch, the mode of life, beliefs of the ancestors, and real events of the remote past. I chose this topic because I have always been interested in the idioms and phraseology as they reflect the culture and history of the language itself. It is a language through which we can connect to the mentality and lifestyle of the people of the target language, moreover, nature of thinking, universe, and perception of the world can be transferred. To know a language means to be able to feel value and depth of the culture and nation of the native speakers. SLA background to the article The problem of native language interference while learning a second language is one of the central issues of linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and SLA. During the process of learning a foreign language a learner can arbitrarily use earlier acquired languages as support, comparing and contrasting the phonetic, lexical, grammatical aspects of the mother and target language. In psychology interference is defined as transfer of skills, presenting as complex human psyche phenomenon, a process which allows a man to use in his acquired intellect and motoric activity upon absolutely new or relatively new circumstances. Psychologists established that formation of a separate skill is never independent; isolated process, it is influenced by and collaborated with the whole previous experience of a man. In other words, interference is interaction of skills where earlier acquired skills impact on establishment of new ones (Vereschyagin, 1976, 131). Basing on the stated above it is clear that during the process of second language acquisition the transfer of skills is founded on the usage of the past linguistic experience which is acquired command of a native language. Thus, communication skills formed at early childhood in certain way influence on second language acquisition. Communication skills transfer from the native language to a foreign language is spontaneous, unconscious process, hidden from direct observation and taking place independently from a speakers will or wish. From linguistic point of view the term ‘interference is used according to study an issue of languages contacting for notifying modifications which is observed in the learners speech as result of different language systems interaction. However, among linguists there is no total unanimity regarding language interference. However, today most linguists are convinced that the mother tongue can affect foreign-language learners. Linguists call this process of influence from the mother tongue transfer, which is also known as cross-linguistic influence. This process can occur in all aspects of language including the vocabulary, grammar and spelling. When transfer results in something correct because the rules of the first and the second language overlap, this is referred to as positive transfer. By contrast, when transfer results in something incorrect this is referred to as negative transfer, also known as interference (Dulay et al 1982:101). In this background section I will offer a more detailed discussion of the terms mentioned and present different researchers views concerning native language interference. I will also show how linguistic studies of interference have developed over time. Contrastive Analysis During the 1940s and 1950s most errors were ascribed to interference and consequently a major part of applied linguistic research was devoted to comparing the mother tongue and the target language in order to predict or explain the errors made by learners with particular linguistic backgrounds (Corder 1981:1). This approach was the first to elucidate the problems of interference and was referred to as contrastive analysis. Contrastive analysis influenced the field of applied linguistics and second language learning for over two decades. But eventually, many linguists abandoned contrastive analysis and adopted a more positive view of the role of the first language in second language acquisition (Dulay et al 1982:97). Yet, it is still important to understand this approach because it shaped so much early linguistic research and therefore underlies much current second language teaching methodology and material (Dulay et al 1982:97). Contrastive analysis assumed that a learners first language interferes with his or her acquisition of a second language, and that it therefore constitutes the major obstacle to successful mastery of the new language (Dulay et al 1982:97). Lightbown Spada give a similar explanation: Contrastive analysis hypothesis predicts that where there are similarities between the first and the second languages, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty (Lightbown Spada 1997:23). Comparing the mother tongue and the target language was considered useful for teachers, who could predict learner errors beforehand, and thus prevent them (Heny 1994:162). However, contrastive analysis was also criticised by those who considered it impossible to predict when the errors would be made. Furthermore, the errors which learners commonly made in class were not necessarily the ones predicted by contrastive analysis. There were errors that could not be explained simply by noting the differences between the languages involved, and sometimes the errors that a contrastive analysis did predict were not found in practice (Allwright Bailey 1991:83). Contrastive analysis was considered misleading as a basis for teaching, since it encouraged the idea that first language influence was the only thing that caused learners errors (Heny 1994:165). Further questioning of the relevance of contrastive analysis was the result of the classification of learners errors in studies that became known as error analyses (Odlin 1989:18). These kinds of studies were developed during the 1970s and involved a detailed description and analysis of the kinds of errors second language learners make. The goal of this research was to discover what learners really know about the language (Lightbown Spada 1997:55). The difference between these two methods was that error analysis did not set out to predict errors on the basis of interference from the native language. Rather, it sought to discover and describe the different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners acquire the foreign language. One of the main challenges for error analysts was to decide what category to assign a particular error to. For example, omitting an article in English may possibly be a case of simplification (see section 2.3) with a Spanish speaker but a case of transfer with a Korean speaker (Odlin 1989:19). Lightbown Spada (1997:55) also point out that error analysis was based on the theory that the speech of second language learners is a system in its own right, one which is rule governed and predictable and very much like the system of young first language learners. Transfer The concept of transfer is based on the idea that previous learning influences on subsequent learning. In language learning, this denotes that the patterns and forms of the native language are imposed on the second language (Gass, 1979). When these are identical of the two languages and the learner uses the first language in producing the second, positive transfer takes place. The result is a correct target language pattern or form. When they are different, using those of the mother tongue to produce the equivalent form or pattern in the target language causes negative transfer. The errors that result are called interference errors. During the 1950s and 1960s, interlingual transfer was considered to be the most significant factor in learning foreign language (Politzer, 1965). However, the paradigm shift that occurred in linguistics and psychology in the 1960s established a change of focus. The emergence of generative grammar and cognitive psychology created the new discipline of psycholinguistics. Language acquisition was no longer considered as a process of forming correct habits through repetition and reinforcement, but as the result of an innate language acquisition device which operates through a process of hypothesis testing (Chomsky, 1959). Due to transfer had been associated with the habit formation theory of language acquisition, the shift to generative grammar brought with it much less stress on interference and more stress on developmental processes, learning strategies, and the structure of the target language as sources of error (Richards, 1974). Second language acquisition came to be considered as a â€Å"creative construction† process rather than the transfer of habits from the native language to the target (Dulay Burt, 1975). Kellerman (1983) addressed the relationship between L1 knowledge and interpretation of the figurative use of the L2. His studies showed that the L1 plays a role in L2 idiom processing even though L2 learners are less likely to transfer L1 knowledge when they perceive the meaning as figurative. There is a large number of terms used in discussions of the influence of the native language on a second language. One of these terms is transfer, which is also known as cross-linguistic influence. Some researchers virtually denied the existence of language transfer and others have been sceptical about its importance. Yet there are also researchers who have argued for the importance of transfer and have gone so far as to consider it the paramount fact of second language acquisition (Odlin 1989:3). However, a more balanced perspective has emerged by now, in which the role of transfer is acknowledged and in which transfer is seen to interact with a host of other factors not yet fully understood (Odlin 1989:9). A definition of the term transfer is given by Gass Selinker (2001:66): â€Å"It is a term that was used extensively in the first half of the century and refers to the psychological process whereby prior knowledge is carried over into a new learning situation.† Odlin (1989:27) offers another definition of transfer for the context of applied linguistics: â€Å"Transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.† However, Odlin (1989:28) also says that it is difficult to give a precise and correct definition of transfer as long as there is no existing adequate definition of language. While there are many definitions of transfer, the concept can be divided into positive and negative transfer. Both types of transfer refer to the automatic and subconscious use of old behaviour in new learning situations (Dulay et al 1982:101). Positive transfer results in correct performance because the new behaviour is the same, and as appropriate as, the old (Dulay et al 1982:101). According to Odlin (1989:36), the effects of positive transfer are only determinable through comparison of the success of groups with different native languages. Such comparison often shows that cross-linguistic similarities can produce positive transfer in several ways. Similarities between native language and target language vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprehension. Similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sounds easier. Similarities between writing systems can give learners a head start in reading and writing the target language. And s imilarities in syntactic structures can facilitate the acquisition of grammar. Learners speaking a language with a syntax similar to that of the target language tend to have less difficulty with, for example, articles, word order, and relative clauses (Odlin 1989:36). In contrast, negative transfer refers to those instances of transfer which result in errors because old, habitual behaviour is different from that to be learned (Dulay et al 1982:101). Negative transfer involves divergences from norms in the target language and it is often relatively easy to identify. Although negative transfer tends to be associated with production errors, there are other ways in which an individuals second language performance may differ from the behaviour of native speakers. Some examples of these are underproduction, overproduction and misinterpretation (Odlin 1989:37). The native language can influence the interpretation of target language messages, and sometimes that influence leads to learners inferring something very different from what speakers of the target language would infer. Misinterpretation may occur, for example, when native and target language word-order patterns or cultural assumptions differ (Odlin 1989:37). Gass Selinker (2001:68) consider the terms positive and negative transfer debatable. The question is whether transfer can be positive or negative at all: â€Å"The terms refer to the product, although the use implies a process. There is a process of transfer; there is not a negative or positive transfer.† Both Dulay et al (1982:101) and Heny (1994:164) are instead questioning how one can know exactly what is being transferred. Is it principles, word-patterns or sound? However, while it appears to be difficult to determine exactly what is being transferred, most linguists do agree that the mother tongue can affect learners English in several ways (Swan Smith 2001:11). Interlanguage The term interlanguage,introduced by Larry Selinker (1972), was coined in the belief that the language learners language was a sort of hybrid between his or her first language and the target language. The evidence of this was the large number of errors which could be ascribed to the process of transfer. But when second language acquisition researchers began to collect data from learners not receiving formal instruction, particularly children, the production of transfer errors was generally found to be quite small. Clearly interlanguage was not simply a hybrid language but had a developmental history of its own (Corder 1981:2). Some of the structures produced by the learners are to be found neither in their first language nor in the language they are learning, i.e. no native speaker of either language ever produces them (Malmkjà ¦r 2004:83). Lightbown Spada (1997:122) explain that interlanguage is systematic, but also dynamic and continually evolving as learners receive more input a nd revise their hypotheses about the second language. Culture and language Interconnection of languages and cultures, the necessity of their co-learning makes no doubts. Learning foreign languages as means of communication between representatives of different people and cultures must be inseparable with the world and culture of people, speaking these languages. In his sociocultural cognitive theory of development Leo Vygotsky, a great Russian psychologist, put culture and social factors into the central chain. The driving force of development, according to him, is external factors. It differs from most other social approaches in considering interaction as an essential power rather than as just a helpful condition for learning. In the foundation of his theory there three principles: the importance of culture, pivotal role of a language and interaction of a learner with an environment. The critique Thus, the authors of the reviewing article, Boers and Demecheleer, tried to gauge the impact of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic differences on language learners interpretation of imageable idioms, concluding with a set of guidelines to anticipate and remedy the comprehension problems of figurative expressions. First, the authors presented only brief classification of idioms regarding the determination the degree of semantic transparency of an idiom, different factors can influence, such as whether the idioms are non-decomposable, or reflect a common metaphoric theme, or are closely associated with a given metaphoric theme; there are idioms with a clear etymological origin as well as culture-specific grounding. Besides, idioms have certain specific features, such as: idioms are used as a one meaning unit in discourse; having holistic meaning, idioms are not created all over again in the discourse, but are retained and retrieved from the memory as ready word combinations; idioms have permanent content of their components. Moreover, idioms can be classified according to whether they contain a noun phrase denoting a person, subject or phenomenon: better half, chip of the old block, copy cat; or a verbal phrase, designating an action or a process: to keep the fall rolling, to catch someones eye, to hit the ceiling; attributive phrases, denoting features, qualities of a person or object: all thumbs, blue blood, proud as a peacock, armed to the teeth; adverbial phrases, specifying characteristics of an action or process: with flying colours, till Kingdom come, till the cows come home; modal phrases, denoting various attitude of a speaker towards a situation: its another pair of shoes, its not my cup of tea. Second, in the article there is lack of SLA theory considered. The authors do not specify any second language acquisition theory in particular, limiting with some remarks Further, for the experiment only 24 idioms were selected involving the imagery of hat, sleeves, ship and food. I subject that this amount of idioms is enough for the experiment as well as the imagery unlikely reflect the culture and traditions of the English people and their language. I would suggest including the following imagery that inherent to the English culture: bird, fish, horse, pig, such as: like a bird, a bird in the bush; a fish out of water, a loose fish; beat a dead horse, horse and horse; when pigs fly, buy a pig in a poke. Moreover, the selected idioms such as Hang up ones hat, Keep something under ones hat are old-fashioned and less used now. The authors included only idioms which did not have one-to-one equivalents in French. In order to assess the possible impact of cross-cultural differences on the ‘guessability of these idioms to French speakers, the authors called in the help five ‘blind judges, who were native speakers of English, and experienced EFL teachers. However, I suppose, to be confident that they have no one-to-one equivalent in the French language; these idioms have to be considered by French native speakers as well. However, the transferability of the idioms appears to be the major factor in learning a second language, as a learner can connect the knowledge of his native figurative language with the foreign one. The problem is cross-cultural differences. For example, it is very difficult to find one-to-one equivalent. During the experiment the participants were given about 20 minutes to try to guess the meaning of the selected idioms without contextual clues. Id like to point out that in real life we meet idioms in all forms of discourse: in conversations, lectures, movies, radio broadcasts, and television programmes. Thereby, I assume that the context will facilitate the comprehension, and giving idioms without any context is not natural. The results of the experiment were the following: almost 35% of the respondents answers were at least partially correct. The researchers concluded that the semantics of many idioms need not be tackled as arbitrary in language-learning contexts. Students can be encouraged to first try to decode imageable idioms independently. i.e. as a problem-solving task requiring a deeper level of cognitive processing, before resorting to the teacher or the dictionary for corroboration or falsification (Lennon 1998). A deep level of cognitive processing is known to be beneficial for long-term memory storage (Ellis 1994). Moreover, in common learning conditions idioms are given in a context, which facilitates comprehension considerably (Cooper 1999). The analysis of research methodology In their experiment the authors applied questionnaires. This type of data collection is the most widespread, first, because it is self-administered and can be given to a large groups of subjects at the same time, besides it is less expensive to administer that other procedures such as interviews. Second, since the same questionnaire is given to all subjects, the data are more uniform and standard, as well as since they are usually given to all subjects of the research at exactly the same time, the data are more accurate. And one more is not the least of the factors is anonymity; subjects tend to share information of a sensitive nature more easily. The research involved 78 French-speaking students of University of Brussels. The group was quite heterogeneous, and in general their level of English proficiency was intermediate. The participants were given twenty minutes to try to guess the meaning of the selected twelve idioms without contextual clues. In order to avoid a common problem of questionnaires as misunderstanding of questions themselves as well as the proper replies to the questions relevant to research in second language, as subjects very often have obstacles in reading and providing answers in L2, the participants were allowed to use the French language to present their ideas. Discussion The authors propose practical guidelines for the teachers whose learners encounter an unfamiliar idiom in a text, i.e. a strategy, involving six stages, to anticipate and remedy comprehension problems. Therewith it is pointed out that all six stages will always need to be passed through in practice, but can be taken as a checklist to remind teachers of the variables involved in idiom comprehension. Above all these stages the crucial point to my mind is resorting to contextual clues to infer the meaning of an idiom. It is necessary to persuade learners to comparison and correlation of language devices of contacting languages all the time when it can prevent the interference and make positive transfer. Linguistic competence suggests mastering of certain amount of formal knowledge connected with various language aspects: phonetic system, vocabulary, grammatical structure during their historical development and at the modern stage, as well as certain skills of application of these language means for different linguistic purposes, such as language analysis, including forms and meanings; analysis of special features of language units application separately and in context; comparison of various language phenomena at different periods of language development; consolidation or differentiation of language phenomena by a certain factor (factors); etymological analysis of a language unit, existing in a modern language system. The achievement of these goals facilitates the development of linguistically oriented thinking of the learners, namely ability to carry out linguistic analysis of various language phenomena and factors, single out the principal and secondary, draw a conclusion out of t he analysis results, generalize the received data, compare linguistic facts, classify them. Besides, taking into account â€Å"zone of proximal development† of L.S. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, which implies solving a problem with the assistance of an â€Å"expert†, who provides ‘scaffolding, and then internalizes the solution, the authors suggest to corroborate or falsify the learners hypotheses. If learners are on the right track, then offer further guidance towards the full interpretation. If they stay in the dark, then clarify the meaning of the idiom. Once the meaning of the idiom is established Boers and Demecheleer offer to invite the learners to ‘motivate it. This stage is meant to show the non-arbitrary nature of many figurative expressions. Various approaches can be tried. One can associate the idiom with a more vivid or concrete scene. For instance, Passing the hat around can be associated with the scene of someone collecting money for a street musician, Having something up ones sleeve can be linked with the scene of a magician performing tricks, which is a common source of verbal humour, can be a fruitful technique to paint more vivid pictures in the learners mind (Irujo 1986). On the whole, concreteness and vivid imagery facilitate the retention of novel vocabulary (Sokmen 1997). One can also try to lay bare ‘logic of a given idiom. For example, Kill two birds with one stone obviously means to take more advantages doing one thing. Evidently, not all imageable idioms lend themselves easily to such explanations, but the cognitive effort put into the brainstorming activity may nevertheless be beneficial for retention and language awareness. A complementary approach to ‘motivating idioms is to look for their possible etymological origin. The lions mouth, for example, has biblical origin, meaning a dangerous place; to carry coals to Newcastle implies to do useless things as Newcastle is the centre of the English coal industry. Finally, if the idiom exemplifies a metaphoric theme that is more salient in the target culture than in the learners culture, then raise the learners awareness of the cross-cultural variation. Though this particular article has not been responded, cited, or used in any research or writing, having looked through the recent studies, I can find that Boers and Demecheleers scope of work has developed into Another prominent approach of Conclusion Interaction of languages is all possible varieties of mutual influence, interpenetration of two or more languages and their dialects. Borrowing of different linguistic factors by a language from another, as well as results of language interaction I consider as an enrichment process. However, dominance and subjection cannot be avoided and in linguistic contacts there is no language equity, one of the languages always subdues another. Thus, learning a foreign language a man profits to look at the world from other, not usual, point of view. It is not without reason there is a proverb: â€Å"How many languages you know, so many times you are a man†.

Insulin and Student Response Sheet

1. In the space below, properly document each of the three sources you found that show how insulin signals a cell to take in glucose from the blood. Under each documented source, write an explanation of why it is a legitimate and reliable source of information about insulin and its effects on cells.R, Bowen. (2009, August). Physiological Effect of Insulin. Colostate. Retrieved from http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/pancreas/insulin_phys.html This source is legitimate because the information is up to date until 2009 and has an author. Also there are very few ads and the sponsor is popular for their knowledge. There is also a contact information, if you have any comments or anything to correct.Insulin and Glucose Regulation (n.d.). In bcs.whfreeman. from http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp50/5002s.swf This source is legitimate because the sponsor is popular for their tutorials. The site is knowledgeable and has no errors, a lot of info, and there†™s also a quiz to see if you learned what you read.Jagoda, Robin. (2011, March). How Does Insulin Signal a Cell to Take in Glucose From the Blood?. Livestrong Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/27924-insulin-signal-cell-glucose-blood/ This source is legitimate because it has an author and also citations on where they got the information from. Very few ads, but no errors and there’s also a comment box, where you can comment the mistakes they made if there was any.2. Take notes on the relationship between insulin and glucose. Draw sketches or diagrams if necessary.Glucose is the main source of energy and insulin is the key to body cells.Both work together to give energy to the body cells. The insulin opens the door of the body cells for the glucose to enter the body. If the body does not produce insulin then the body cells won’t be able to get any glucose and it means that they have type 1 diabetes. If the insulin cannot unlock the body cells door then that means that they have type 2 diabetes and the insulin and glucose will just build up in the blood. When the blood sugar is high, insulin is released to the pancreas and if blood sugar is low then glucagon is released to it.3. Write a summary, either in paragraph form or in a series of steps or bullets, explaining how insulin binds to cells and the mechanism involved in triggering the cells to take in glucose. Write the summary in the space below. After eating your food, glucose from the food is released into the blood. High glucose level is a signal to release insulinThe pancreas then releases the insulin to the cells The insulin acts as a key for glucose to enter the cell The glucose is then used as energy.

The Bottom Billion: Why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it by Paul Collier Oxford University Press (2007)

â€Å"I have a little boy who is six. I do not want him to grow up in a world with a vast running sore- a billion people stuck in desperate conditions alongside unprecedented prosperity. † (176. Paul Collier). It is a global nightmare and â€Å"a ghetto of misery and discontent† (collier) that would affect, not only Africa, but the world in general, â€Å"unless† the G8 (a group of 8 industrialized countries) and mass of informed ordinary citizens act seriously and responsibly to help these countries overcome the poverty trap they have been stuck in for decades; enable them to converge with the rest of the world and live up to the 21st century standards. Paul Collier is a professor of Economics and Director of the Center for the Study of African Economies at Oxford University, and former director of Development Research at the World Bank. In 2010, he was named by Foreign Policy Magazine to its list of top global thinkers. Collier holds a distinction award from Oxford University. Among his books The Plundered Planet published in May 2010, Wars, Guns, and Votes published in March 2009, and the Bottom Billion published in 2007. In the â€Å"Bottom Billion: why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it† Collier seeks to find out factors that are causing one billion of people to live in extreme poverty and have unproductive life. In the meanwhile he wants to shift the thinking of the industrialized countries from â€Å"alleviating [their] poverty† to â€Å"economic convergence†. Collier approaches his arguments through an empirical studies where he analyses statistically the correlation between factors he considers to be responsible to cause the sad reality which one billion of people live in – the â€Å"fourteenth century [characteristics of]: civil war, plague, ignorance. † He uses data from University of Michigan, his own resources and experiences as an Africa expert, and his colleagues’ resources. Collier gradually argues that there are four traps which are responsible to trap bottom billion countries and place them at the bottom of the global economic system. However Collier does also include solutions that are needed to be taken seriously and responsibly by both the G8 and the bottom billion government officials for any change to happen and to save the world from â€Å"sleepwalking into unnecessary catastrophe† in the future. What is the â€Å"bottom billion†? According to Collier, they are fifty-eight small countries Characterized by civil war, plague, and ignorance. Their population combined is fewer than China or India. Per capita income is very low, so the income of the typical country is negligible, less than that of most of the rich world cities. They are countries that do not form a geographic label, so Collier label them as â€Å"Africa+† as 70% of the people of the bottom billion are in Africa. The + sign refers to places such as Haiti, Bolivia, the Central Asian countries, Laos, Cambodia, Yemen, Burma, and North Korea. The average life expectancy is 50 yrs, the infant mortality is 14%, and proportion of children with symptoms of long-term mal nutrition is 36%. The misfortune one billion still is living in extreme poverty in a country affected by recurrent conflicts, resource curse, geographic isolation or bad governance. ) The conflict trap: according to Collier, 73% of people in the societies of the bottom billion have recently been in civil war or still in one. 50% of conflicts in the bottom billion are post conflict relapses. The low income, slow growth, and dependency upon primary commodity exports (oil, diamonds, or gold) are leading causes that increases the risk of civil war. Civil war destroys the economic of the society during war and post conflict war as collier calculates the average cost to be $ 64 billion. Examples of countries fail into conflicts are Cote d’Hivoir, Democratic Republic of the Congo- formerly Zaire, and Sierra Leone. The typical civil war last for a long time â€Å"something around a decade, more than 10 times as long as typical international war. † (Collier). It is very hard to stop it, when it does, possibility for another civil war, repeated civil war. Collier argues that political injustice is not what makes the society prone to a civil war, as Zimbabwe faces the injustice of political rights but there is no war, no rebellion civil war. Instead, Collier statistical analyses show that poverty, stagnation, and availability of valuable natural resources are the causes that seem to produce civil war rather than political injustice. ) Natural Resource Curse: Natural resource rich countries in Africa have ended up poor as a result of resource wealth that only the few (government officials and foreign extract agencies) to benefit from but not the majority (the citizen). The elites in these countries detach themselves from the interest and concerns of the majority of their population; they con trol and steal the revenues of primary commodities exports. All these revenues go to private pockets or foreign banks. According to Collier, it is estimated to be 38% of Africa’s wealth has fled the continent. Economists explain resource curse as a â€Å"Dutch disease†, because â€Å"the resource exports cause the country’s currency to rise in value against other currencies. This make the country’s other export activities uncompetitive. † Nigeria for example in 1970s, its oil revenues built up. Yet, the country’s other exports such as peanuts and cocoa became unprofitable. As Nigeria’s currency rise in value, the peanut and cocoa prices become higher for importers who might find another peanut and cocoa supplier cheaper from that of Nigeria. Therefore, Nigeria’s peanuts and Cocoa became unprofitable, and production rapidly collapsed. Failure to diversify the export products, the resource rich countries can’t break free from the dependency of exporting the primary commodities as they are source of big revenues. The government accountability is not transparent for its citizens as the latter are not taxed by their governments. Consequently, the citizenry are less likely to demand financial accountability. However, the natural resource is good source of wealth for the whole society when their governments have managed to use the resource wealth very well such as Canada, Norway, and Australia. ) Landlocked countries with bad neighbors: Countries that lack coastline are forced to sell to their neighboring countries’ markets. Example of Uganda and Switzerland, both are landlocked but the first one is poor and the second one is rich (respectively). Collier explains that neighbor matters for development, he continues explaining the fact that Switzerland is a rich country, despite the fact is a landlocked, bec ause it depends on its neighbors the Germany and Italian infrastructure. Whereas Uganda’s poor neighbors with their weak infrastructure make it hard for Uganda to access to the sea and integrate into global markets. Kenyan’s infrastructure is so important to Uganda’s access to the sea. Moreover, sometimes the neighbors not only are the transport corridor, they are also the markets themselves, like Germany, Italy, and France were the Switzerland market. While Uganda neighbors are Kenya, Somalia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Tanzania. All of Uganda’s neighboring countries are poor, and have been through genocide like Rwanda, stagnation of nearly three decade like in Kenya, Somalia that is completely ollapsed, and Democratic Republic of the Congo that has catastrophic for it to change its name from Zaire. Therefore, Switzerland has been for a period of three decades in the better neighborhood. While Uganda’s neighbors are economically poor countries with weak infrastructure, which is absolutely don’t form good neighbor for Uganda. â€Å"Landlocked countries with poor infrastructure connections to their neighbors have limited market for their goods. † (Collier) 4- Bad Governance in a small country: bad policies adopted by bad government can destroy the economy of a country. The type of democracy practiced in these countries is dysfunctional democracy lack the check and balance system. Thus, the government officials seize each opportunity they have to build up a fortune from the natural resource revenues that are supposed to benefit the majority of the society not only the few in the government. The instability and lack of accountability especially in these small countries of the bottom billion discourage potential investors, who usually feel better when opt for better known countries such as china and India than unfamiliar countries with instability and risks. Chad is a landlocked country with aid and oil. Chad’s only option is their government to provide public services from the aid and oil revenues. However, 2004 survey tracked money released by the ministry of Finance â€Å"intended† for rural health clinics. Survey showed that â€Å"only1% of it reached the clinics and 99% failed to reach its destination. † In part 3 Chapter 6, Collier argues that globalization works for India and China but not the bottom billion that may have â€Å"missed the boat†. Globalization seem to work against the bottom billion, because of â€Å"economies of agglomeration† as Asia used labor-intensive manufacturing strategy to break into the global markets and makes competitive for â€Å"later comers† to compete with their products that seem to control the international markets. Bottom billion, in turn, become supplier of primary commodities, which just reinforce the natural resource trap. In the final section, Collier suggests in helping the poorest, there is a need to â€Å"narrow the target and broaden the instruments†. To focus only on the one billion that live below poverty line and experience no type of growth compared to the rest of the world; and to shift thinking from aid to an array of policy instruments such as aid delivery, military intervention, charter and laws, and trade policy, which are the instruments he proposes to help the bottom billion escape from the traps mentioned above. 1- Aid Policy: Aid causes intense political disagreements between the left and right. Left sees it as a part of solution they regard it to be as a reparations for colonialism, while the right sees it a part of problem when the feckless get rewarded. Collier believes that aid does â€Å"tend to speed up the growth process†. He reminds readers to the fact that United States was also that poor, and took it to get to where it is today about two hundred years. He believes in â€Å"aid for development† neither in â€Å"aid for reparations† nor â€Å"aid for the feckless†. However Collier insists to change the way the aid is provided, keeping in mind that statistical evidence generally suggests that aid is â€Å"subject to what is called â€Å"diminishing returns. † When aid reaches about 16 percent of GDP it is not anymore effective. In addition aid can be an inducement to rebellion and to coups, it is sometimes called â€Å"rents to sovereignty†. So to make it more effective, there is a need to form agencies just to supervise the aid money and to make sure it reaches its potentials for which is given. Aid money needs to be watched more closely so does not leak to military spending or be taken by coups. 2- Military intervention: it is the most controversial one in the list of instruments; however, the bottom billion countries â€Å"cannot provide their own security to an adequate fashion. That is the same strategy used 40 years ago, when North America provided supplies security to Europe after World War II. Collier mentions the tragedy of Rowanda when 800,000 died unnecessary due to rejection of military intervention. Yet the British military intervention in Sierra Leone end brutal long lasting civil war. Both the Sierra Leone government officials and its citizens welcome the military action that helped them to be in peace from the rebellion that recruit addicted teenagers and train them to hack the hands and the feet of villagers including women and children. -Laws and Charters: giving the fact these countries are very corrupt and far from the transparent to adopt laws that will benefit their citizens, Collier suggests in this case a voluntary of international standards that would put pressure within these societies to adopt them. Example of such law â€Å"the extract industry transparency† requires governments in the bottom billion to report to its own citizens what revenues are getting from natural resource extraction. Nigeria eformers adopted it and a lot other governments ha ve adopted it because of the pressure from below. It is that pressure on governments from within their own society that would lead some other governments to adopt them. 4- Trade Policies: also it is debated about especially the bottom billion countries are poor with zero tolerance; however, Collier believes that opening the west markets to bottom billion countries in much generous way, would absolute help their economy to succeed and to diversify to light manufactures and into a wide range of agricultural goods. As matter of fact, would enable them to break free from their dependency on exporting that narrow range of primary commodities. â€Å"The west countries have done it in the past- when rich countries opened its markets to each other, or when North America opens its markets to Europe so the latter could recover. The whole modern wealth of Europe, America, and Japan grew through that process of opening and sharing markets†. Trading policy that Collier proposes in the bottom billion would help the rich countries to be safer and more prosperous. Collier, I think he achieves his goals of building a mass of informed citizens as he thinks that it is a step forward for changes to happen and for better future for the bottom billion countries. About 50,000 copies of the bottom billion book were sold in just few months by different age groups. Also, the new paperback edition was being translated into Chinese, Japanese, German, Spanish, French, Italian, Korean, and Norwegian. Politicians may find it hard to get away with the classic political gestures of â€Å"flying in, kissing couple of babies, announcing some sort of Aid program, and then forgetting about it. † Now the well informed citizens are just a pressure on politicians’ decisions toward this part of the world. Collier also generates an astonishing political interest that the bottom billion countries now are benefiting from and their economic growth is being recognized by leaders such as Ban-Ki Moon, the Secretary General of the Unite Nations announced â€Å"let 2008 be the Year of the Bottom Billion. Robert Zoellick, the president of the World Bank, announced in his first Annual Meeting address that â€Å"a stronger focus on the bottom billion would now be a priority†, Douglas Alexander, British Secretary of State for Development â€Å"announced the creation of a massive international Growth Center for the poorest countries†¦etc. Bottom Billion is a must read book for whoever is interested

book thief Essay - 1345 Words

The Book Thief The Book Thief shows beauty can exist in the midst of brutality. The Book Thief by Markus Zusak shows through the midst of brutality, beauty can still be shown. The main characters Liesel Meminger, Rudy Steiner and Hans Huberman, prove this statement they are all faced with perilous situations, but still manage to show beauty throughout the situations. Liesel Meminger display beauty during the air raids, as she manages to read to people in the basement. Rudy Steiner displays beauty he jumps in the river to get Liesel’s book. Through Hans Huberman nobel character he displays beauty as he risks his life to hide a Jewish man in his basement. Different attributes such as reading to people during the air raids,†¦show more content†¦He believed in equality, and Hitler wasn’t displaying that, as he discriminated Jews. If you were a Jew you were in danger, no body would want to be a Jew in 1939. Hans shows even through preposterous situations beauty can still be shown. Whilst in the Jew marching, Hans did the unthinkable. â€Å" Handed a piece of magic† to Jew. What was he thinking? Why would he put his own life in danger just for Jews? Shouldn’t Hans be against Jew? The answer is , no. Hans wanted to help the Jews, in any possible way . This isn’t only what Hans did. Feeding a Jew bread was one thing, but Hans allowed Jew named Max Vandenberg to hide in his basement away from the Hitler. What was he thinking, he wasn’t only putting his life in danger, he was putting his family on the line, just for this one Jewish boy , who he doesn’t even know. Hans stated â€Å" I would rather gamble on a a live jew† . That was a big risk for him, but he took it because he knew it was the right thing to do, as he didn’t want this boy to suffer. Even in absolute brutal situations, Hans admirable character shows beauty can still be displayed. Although Rudy Steiner is just a young boy, â€Å" eight months older than Liesel† he shows through the brutal situations he sees and faces, it is evident that beauty can still be displayed. As Rudy idolized Jesse Owns even painting himself â€Å"charcoal black† believed in equality. As he discovered Hitler discriminatedShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Book Thief995 Words   |  4 PagesImagine the threat of being bombed in an instance, found out for harbouring a jewish man, and starving to death each day. This is the life Liesel Meminger has to live through each and every day in The Book Thief written by Markus Zusak. Liesel is young girl who was adopted into a German family, after her mother was threatened by the fact she was a jewish women in Nazi Germany. Trapped, by Michael Northrop has a similar issue. In Trapped 5 middle school students get stuck after school in whatRead MoreThe Book Thief Analysis781 Words   |  4 PagesThieves Right off the bat, is this supernatural being known as Death, is introduced as the humorously mocking storyteller of Markus Zusak’s novel, The Book Thief. Death comes right out and tells all of his readers that, â€Å"you are going to die.† The narrator follows the story of a little girl that goes by the name of Liesel Meminger and publicizes her advancements as an occupant in Germany throughout the supremacy of Hitler’s decree. Liesel has an obscure understanding of death and the device of wordsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Book Thief 854 Words   |  4 PagesJaimi Plater Kraft-Willson ENG 1D1 April 8, 2016 Journal 3: The Role of Theme in the Novel The theme in the novel The Book Thief enhances the importance of the external and internal conflicts that young Lisesel (the protagonist) faces. To begin, Liesel’s struggles with reading and words have helped her get closer to her Papa, which ends up hurting her even more in the end. Death watches Liesel and her Papa read and work on the alphabet together for the first time: â€Å"As they progressed through theRead MoreThe Book Thief Essay1157 Words   |  5 Pagesnature. â€Å"The madness {lies} in the fact that the savage and the splendid can exist in one creature, one person and often in one instant.† I enjoyed reading about Liesel Meminger in the novel The Book Thief by Markus Zusak. Liesel is nine years old and lives in Nazi Germany. In the early chapters of the book we learn that her younger brother has dies, her father is missing ad her communist mother has arranged for her to be adopted by Hans and Rosa Hubermann. 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Markus Zusak’s The Book Thief unravels in antebellum Germany, in the small town of Molching. Within the first few pages, the main protagonist, Liesel, witnesses the death of brother and is abandonedRead MoreThe Book Thief Essay2006 Words   |  9 PagesHistorically, people have used literacy to obtain political power. In the novel The Book Thief by Markus Zusak, it is evident that books, reading, and words themselves represent power for different characters in different ways. Close analysis of Liesel Meminger and Max Vandenburg reveals that power can be achieved through literacy in a context where literacy is severely limited. Literacy plays a major role in Liesel’s adolescence. Liesel obtains power through literacy as it gives her a sense ofRead MoreSymbolism In The Book Thief948 Words   |  4 Pagesfor example, sorrow or grief. Throughout the novel, Markus Zusak shows people distracting themselves from desperate times of sorrow through art. The use of art in The Book Thief represents creative outlets used as a coping mechanism for each character. The forms of art in the midst of pain are an accordion, a sketchbook, and books. To someone who were to pick up one of these items wouldn’t see much importance but to the main characters, they are what keeps them inspired and hopeful during the catastrophicRead MoreAbandonment in the Book Thief788 Words   |  4 Pagesrecognition that the proof was in the abandonment (Zusak 32). The novel The Book Thief by Markus Zusak is the story of Liesel Meminger, a young girl who struggles through WWII and faces the pain and suffering of abandonment. When one is faced with such an abandonment and is forced to cope on their own, they may feel lost and alone. These emotions force people to find comfort. As in Liesel s case, some people find comfort in books and words. Liesel s perspective on abandonment can be seen through howRead MoreThe Book Thief Essay863 Words   |  4 Pages(Zusak 491). This book shows us human doing things that weren’t even imaginable before this point. Many people give into ideas that were lies. But, we also watch a few people go out of their way and sacrifice everything for a man they barely even know. They do everything they can to keep him safe and alive. They work harder, the get another job, and they even steal. In Markus Zusak’s The Book Thief, death examines the ugliness and the beauty of humans. During Markus Zusak’s book we observe the beauty